Q.1 How do you think
sociology as a science? Also discuss major theoretical perspectives of
Sociology.
A lot of people have different opinions about what sociology really is. The debate over whether or not
sociology can be classified as a science. Sociologists have probably been baffled by this for a long time. Perhaps as a result of this, the field of sociology has split into two distinct camps. Therefore, there are two distinct points of view on what Sociology really is. In the eyes of some scholars, the scientific method is central to Sociology, making it a legitimate scientific discipline. Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and other early sociologists agree with this assessment. Some people argue that Sociology is not a science, while others disagree. Max Weber, a German sociologist, rejects the scientific status of his discipline. Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim argued that the scientific method was fundamental to making sociology a legitimate discipline. It is true that sociologists use scientific methodologies in their research. That is why we call Sociology a science.The scientific approach is
used in sociology
Sociology applies a scientific approach to the study of social phenomena.
Even though it is impossible to replicate natural phenomena in a controlled
laboratory setting, scientists may nonetheless study human social behaviour. To
do this, it makes use of scientific methodologies including the Sociometry
schedule, the case study, the interview, and the questionnaire.
Observation is feasible in the subject of sociology even if it does not
own a laboratory. Accurate observation is not limited to the confines of a lab.
Sociology conducts its experiments on all of society. ‘ Newton did not come up
with their laws in a lab. Sociology conducts observation of tribal marriage at
the time of occurrence. Even though Sociology does not own a laboratory yet it
produces correct observation. Hence Science describes sociology. Science is
judged by more than just what can be accomplished in a lab.
Similar to the natural sciences, sociology does objective research. It is
an objective assertion supported by sociologist-gathered data to say that dowry
is a harmful societal practise. Further Survey and revivification shows this.
Research in sociology may also be conducted in an unbiased manner. More
objective ways for studying social phenomena are also developed and
implemented. Hence Unlike several other social disciplines, sociology is
rigorously scientific.
Like natural sciences Sociology also traces the cause and discover the
solutions. Population and household growth studies Sociologists have identified
a chain of causality between broken families, divorce, and rising poverty
rates. Divorce occurs because of families being disorganised, and poverty
occurs because of rising populations. This is how sociology explains the cycle
of population growth and social disorder. In this sense, sociology may be considered
a scientific discipline.
Comparable precision in measurement is also found in sociology, just as
it is in the scientific sciences. Sociology provides reliable and precise
measurements of social interactions via the use of statistical technique, socio-metric
scale, and measurement scales. That is why we call Sociology a science.
Sociology, like the scientific sciences, helps shape legislation and provide
more precise forecasts. Sociology's ability to foresee the future relies on its
emphasis on establishing and analysing cause-and-effect relationships. There
would be more suicides and extreme poverty if dowry is still practised.
According to Cuvier, Sociology is becoming more and more accurate as a
predictive science. The more advanced Sociology becomes, the more precise its
forecasts become. The idea that the broad conclusions made by the social
sciences are not applicable elsewhere was debunked. Much like the scientific
sciences, sociology has evolved to the point where it can now make broad, transferable
claims. It is a universal reality that sexual encounters between close
relatives are forbidden due to the incest social taboo.
When it Comes to Science,
Sociology Is Not a Reliable Source
Others, including Max-weber, also argue that Sociology cannot be
considered a true scientific discipline. He said that Sociology is not a true
scientific discipline. A number of people, however, argue that Sociology should
not be considered a true scientific discipline. Because of its inability to
treat social phenomena with complete objectivity, sociology cannot be
considered a science. A sociologist's preconceptions and biases make it
impossible for him to approach his topic objectively. When studying human
behaviour, complete objectivity is a mirage. Sociology examines human
interaction, which differs from the study of inanimate objects. as a result,
sociology can never be objective.
For this reason, sociology cannot be considered a true scientific
discipline. Human social interactions are the focus of sociology, which cannot
be replicated in a controlled setting. Human connection is too abstract to be
measured or observed. Abstract concepts are too difficult to work with for
experimentation.
Predictions in sociology are just as unreliable as those in the natural
sciences. Predictions can be made in the natural sciences because of the data
they use. However, Sociology explores human behaviour and social interactions,
both of which are so unpredictable and unique that they defy prediction. We
have no way of knowing how people will act in the future or how quickly
societal norms will shift. That is why you can not call sociology a science.
In contrast to the scientific sciences, sociologists are unable to
produce precise measurements. It is possible to measure objects using specific
standards of measurement, such as the kilogramme metre. No comparable tools
exist, however, in the field of sociology. Moreover, sociology is concerned
with social connections, which are qualitative in nature and hence
unquantifiable. That is why you can not call Sociology a science.
In contrast to the generally applicable scientific disciplines, sociology
cannot draw broad generalisations. Human behaviour is the focus of sociology,
and no two people are exactly same. Since this is the case, it follows that
Sociology's findings cannot be uniform or generally applicable. Due to the
multifaceted nature of social phenomena and the numerous variables that
influence it, generalisations about these phenomena are notoriously difficult
to make.
Terminological inefficiency is a problem in sociology. The discipline of
sociology has not matured enough to provide a sufficient vocabulary of
scientific terminology. Many of the sociological words employed are nebulous
and may be interpreted in a variety of ways. For instance, the concepts of
caste and class have not yet developed a common understanding. For this reason,
Sociology cannot be considered a science.
There are three primary sociological viewpoints
Researchers in the field of sociology examine social processes from a
variety of angles and depths. Sociologists examine everything from single
occurrences (the microscopic level of analysis of minuscule social patterns) to
societal trends and patterns (the macroscopic level of analysis of vast social
systems) (the macro level of analysis of large social patterns).
However, early European sociologists contributed a more holistic
understanding of societal structure and function. Their ideas underpin the
current theoretical paradigms that provide sociologists a philosophical vantage
point from which to study society and its members and pose specific questions.
Symbolic interactionism, functionalism, and the conflict perspective are
the three main theoretical frameworks used by contemporary sociologists. These
points of view provide sociologists theoretical frameworks for clarifying the
ways in which individuals and communities impact one another. Social
structures, social dynamics, and individual actions are all conceptualised
differently depending on one's point of view.
Sociologists following the symbolic interactionist approach, often known
as symbolic interactionism, are tasked with thinking about the significance of
symbols and daily practises in human interactions. While the American
philosopher George H. Mead (1863-1931) is credited for introducing symbolic
interactionism to American sociology in the 1920s, the idea can be traced back
to Max Weber, who proposed that people acted in accordance with their own
interpretations of the world's meaning.
The symbolic interactionist view holds that individuals provide symbolic
objects with meanings and then behave in accordance with those meanings. The
subjectivity of interpretation is particularly clear in verbal dialogues, since
words uttered aloud are the primary symbols used. The "sender"
attaches significance to the words, and in an ideal scenario, the
"receiver" attaches the same significance. To put it another way,
words are not immutable "things" but rather subject to one's purpose
and subsequent interpretation. A conversation is a symbolic exchange between
people who are continually making sense of their surroundings. Symbols may be
anything at all as long as they represent something larger than themselves. One
example is musical notation. In this context, the black dots and lines are more
than just markers on the paper; they also represent musical notes grouped in a
manner that makes sense. As a result, symbolic interactionists pay careful
consideration to people's behaviours and then try to decipher the significance
that people give to their own and others' actions and symbols.
The American marriage system might benefit from symbolic interactionism.
Wedding rings, lifelong commitment vows, a white wedding dress, a cake, a
church service, flowers, and music are all possible signs of a happy marriage.
Symbols like the American flag and the stars and stripes have certain
connotations in the eyes of the American public, yet each person has their own
interpretations of these and other symbols. For instance, while one partner may
see their wedding bands' circular shape as a sign of "never ending
love," their other may view the rings as nothing more than an unnecessary
cost. Disagreements in how similar events and symbols are interpreted might
lead to misunderstandings.
Many people think symbolic interactionism misses the "grand
picture" of social interpretation since it only focuses on micro-level
interactions. By looking at the "trees" (such as the size of the
diamond in the wedding ring) instead of the "forest," symbolic
interactionists risk missing the "big picture" (for example, the
quality of the marriage). The approach is also criticised for its alleged
inability to adequately account for the impact of society and its institutions
on private relationships.
This is the functionalist view
The functionalist viewpoint, often known as functionalism, holds that all
facets of society are necessary for its proper operation. If a family pays
enough taxes, the government (or state) will pay for their children's
education. In other words, the family relies on the school to prepare the
students for successful careers that will allow them to provide for themselves
and their own families in the future. By growing up to be good citizens who pay
their fair share of taxes, the state benefits as well. Assuming everything
works as it should, society as a whole generates stability, efficiency, and
order. If things do not go as planned, different segments of society will have
to find new ways to work together to restore stability, efficiency, and order.
When the economy is in a bad spot, unemployment and inflation both rise, and as
a result, social services often have to be reduced or eliminated. Fewer courses
are available in schools. The household budget is reduced. And a whole new social
order emerges, bringing stability and increased output.
According to functionalists, society is cohesive because its members
agree on and cooperate to attain the common good. Social consensus, according
to Emile Durkheim, may be either:
When members of a community continue to uphold the same set of values and
beliefs and do the same kinds of labour, a kind of social cohesiveness known as
"mechanical solidarity" emerges. A society's members are more likely
to work together mechanically if they live in a traditional, basic society
where everyone works on the family farm or herds cattle. The Amish community is
a model of mechanised unity.
Organic solidarity, on the other hand, is a sort of social cohesiveness
that develops when members in a community are dependant upon one another yet
have different values, beliefs, and occupations. Industrialized, complex
cultures, such as those seen in contemporary major American cities like New
York, are where organic solidarity is most likely to be found.
In the 1940s and 1950s, functionalist thought was at its height in the
United States. Unlike their European counterparts, American functionalists set
out to determine the reasons behind people's actions. Robert Merton (b. 1910),
an American functionalist sociologist, classifies human actions as either
"manifest" (i.e., consciously undertaken) or "latent"
(i.e., not consciously undertaken). For example, the overt purpose of going to
church or synagogue is to participate in communal worship, while a more covert
one may be to teach individuals to separate their own values from those of the
organisation. Manifest functions are readily obvious when using common sense.
But this is not always the case, and a sociological approach is frequently
necessary to identify underlying functions. As a sociological perspective,
functionalism analyses how various subsystems contribute to the overall
functioning of the system.
Divorce is a good example of a negative function that functionalism has
been accused of ignoring. Others argue that this view encourages people to be
content with how things already are in society. Although it may be to their own
advantage, functionalist thought does not motivate individuals to work for
improving their communities. Instead, the functionalist perspective holds that
aggressive social reform is counterproductive since the different sections of
society will correct spontaneously for any issues that may develop.
Taking a look at things from a conflictive stance
Different from the functionalist and symbolic interactionist viewpoints,
the conflict perspective has its roots in Karl Marx's writings on class
struggle. The conflict viewpoint, in contrast to the aforementioned ones, is
preoccupied with the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing features of
society. Conflict theorists think that the affluent and strong impose social
order on the poor and the powerless, while functionalists protect the status
quo, discourage social change (even if it means social revolution), and believe
that individuals collaborate to create social order. If a local university's
"elite" board of regents decides to increase tuition to fund some
obscure new programme that would boost the school's status, conflict theorists
could see this as more self-serving than helpful.
Although conflict theory was mostly disregarded by American sociologists
in the 1940s and 1950s in favour of the functionalist approach, this changed
dramatically during the turbulent 1960s. Furthermore, they developed Marx's
notion that economic competition is society's central struggle. Conflict
theorists nowadays look for examples of social conflict between any groups
where there is a possibility for inequality of any kind. According to conflict
theorists, organisations that are unequal to one another are more likely to compete
with one another since they have competing values and goals. The dynamic
character of society is driven by the ongoing rivalry between various social
groupings.
Q.2 Elaborate the cultural
base, norms, folkways, values and mores with suitable examples from the
society.
Institutionalized Cultural Foundation
When
we talk about a society's cultural foundation, we are referring to the
collective body of wisdom and experience from which new ideas might spring.
Increasing numbers of innovations and discoveries become feasible when the
cultural foundation strengthens. Countless innovations rely on the component
that was made possible by the development of the geared wheel. Many more modern
innovations would not have been possible without the discovery of electromagnetic
forces and the subsequent development of the vacuum tube, the transistor, and
the microchip. New innovations can not be finished without a solid foundation
of past inventions and discoveries. Many people now credit the "knowledge
boom" of the last several decades as the driving force behind the
innovations of today. This is another way of stating that more and more
individuals have access to and participate in our culture. When the necessary
background information has been accumulated, a breakthrough is all but certain;
in fact, it is not uncommon for many people to independently arrive to the same
breakthrough at roughly the same time. When the foundation of culture gives all
the necessary pieces of information, it is quite likely that some creative
minds will put them together to create something brand new.
Norms
Norms
are the generally accepted standards by which people in a society are expected
to act. Certainly, cultural standards differ considerably from one community to
the next. People from certain countries, including the United States, tend to
make pretty constant eye contact while talking to people. However, Asians may
choose to divert their gaze as a display of civility and respect.
Researchers
in the field of sociology distinguish between four distinct forms of norms:
folkways, mores, taboos, and laws. The term "folkway" refers to a set
of norms of conduct that are generally accepted by society but do not have much
weight from a moral perspective. An American folkway that has been broken
includes loud belching after a meal at someone else's house. Moral standards
are known as "mores." Most members of a culture will be offended by
those who break cultural mores, such as by nudists who attend religious
services. For example, in the United States, incest is considered taboo and
hence strictly forbidden. As a last point, laws are a set of regulations issued
by the state and enforced by the state's military or police. Many social norms
are codified in statute, including prohibitions against child abuse. It is not
against the law, for instance, to wear a bikini to church, despite the fact
that such attire is likely to offend.
In
order for a culture to persist and thrive, its members must act in ways that
are consistent with the values it upholds. This means that members have to have
a strong desire to follow the established norms. First, they must socialise
themselves, or teach standards and values to their children, based on what is
considered "normal" in the community. When "social control"
is required since neither internalisation nor socialisation has worked to
promote conformity, it is said that "social control" is inevitable.
The use of social stigma, monetary penalties, and even incarceration may all
contribute to a society's capacity to maintain order. Coughing into one's
elbow, waiting one's turn, and whispering in a library are all examples of
social conventions.
Folkways
William Graham Sumner, an early American sociologist, was the first to
differentiate between various sorts of norms in his book Folkways: A Study of
the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals
(1906). The theoretical framework developed by sociologists since Sumner's
time.
From his perspective, he defined folkways as social norms that develop
out of habit and routine and serve to structure everyday interactions. They are
useful for the well-ordered functioning of society, and we participate in them
on a regular basis to meet our requirements. The act of waiting one's turn in a
line is a traditional folkway that is practised in many different cultures.
This method standardises the purchasing and service-receiving processes, making
it simpler to go about our everyday lives.
Appropriate clothes, raising one's hand to take turns speaking in a group,
and "civil inattention" (when we gently ignore those around us in
public contexts) are some instances of folkways. A sort of societal pressure,
folkways push us to behave and interact in a specific manner by clearly
delineating between impolite and polite conduct. However, they are not morally
binding, and breaking them seldom results in major repercussions.
Values
Values in society are a major focus for sociologists. Cultural norms that
point to the greater benefit for society as a whole are called "social
values." These are presumptions about what should be prioritised in a
civilised society. They provide all social norms and behaviours their ultimate
significance and justification. All the aspirations and feelings that are not
concrete. "Equality of opportunity" is a good illustration of a core
social objective. It is often seen as a desirable goal in and of itself.
That such a value is crucial in everyday interactions is an
understatement. The importance that people place on their communities varies from
their own. What a guy wants for himself is something that has worth to him as
an individual. Despite widespread agreement, these principles do not acquire
the status of societal norms. A social value, as contrast to a personal value,
is one that prioritises the well-being of others. Individuals' identities are
structured on their sets of social values. What he thinks and how he acts is
controlled by them.
The goal of his socialisation is to incorporate these ideals into his
character, as they are reflected in the ethos, or core beliefs and practises,
of any given society. Thus, whereas materialism permeates American culture,
spiritualism, forgetting oneself, giving up one's desires, and a lack of
ambition are hallmarks of Indian society. Different from the "American
method" is the "Indian manner." Because people of different
cultures place different importance on different things, their societies look
and behave quite differently. Justice, autonomy, politeness, belonging, and
personal accountability are all examples of social ideals.
Mores
When it comes to defining good and evil, mores are more rigid than
folkways. People have strong opinions about social mores, and those who break
them sometimes face social stigma or rejection. So, mores exert more of a coercive
influence in determining how we think and behave than do folkways. Social norms
may be seen in religious ideas.
For instance, several faiths forbid unmarried couples from living
together. A young woman's family, friends, and church community may judge her
immoral for choosing to live with her partner if she comes from a very
traditional religious background.
They may chastise her, warn her of the afterlife's judgement, or even
banish her from their homes and the church as a kind of punishment. These measures
are intended to send a message that her behaviours are unethical and
undesirable, and to encourage her to alter her conduct to more closely reflect
those of the victimised party. Many communities also hold the moral conviction
that discrimination and oppression of any kind, including racism and sexism, is
wrong and immoral.
Q.3 Define the term social
institution. Explain the functions of educational institution in the social
order.
People and the social structures that support them are both essential
components of contemporary society. Imagine a world where there is no
government, no state, no schools, and no economic institutions such as banks or
the stock market. All members of society rely on these social institutions to
keep things running smoothly and to secure their own existence. Society is a
dynamic mosaic of ever-evolving activities, relationships, and systems. Stable
patterns of interaction based on reciprocal expectations are established
through social institutions, which in turn contribute to this stability.
A social institution is a system of interconnected rules, positions, and
behaviours that helps a society satisfy its most fundamental requirements.
Laws, schools, and an organised economy are just a few of the things that any
society must have. Since most social institutions rely on and work in tandem
with one another, changes to one such institution may have ripple effects
across society. One social institution, the family, has intimate ties to
another, the educational system. It would have an effect on the family as a
social institution if school were to be cancelled due to a pandemic.
"a group of individuals connected by shared interest, provided with
material equipment, following norms of their tradition or agreement (charter),
and contributing to the task of culture as a whole," as defined by
Malinowski.
Bertrand argues that "institutions" are a network of social
interactions that serve to fulfil a wide range of basic human desires.
Institution is "an established forms or the condition of a
technique," according to Maciver and Page, who provide a different meaning
of the term. ‘ Another individual An institution, according to Merrill, is
"the interconnected set of standards." Someone another could define
it as "an interconnected system of rules," which might be seen as a
preexisting mechanism for meeting human wants.
The roles that institutions play
The purpose of a social institution is to provide a permanent solution to
a particular problem. If these requirements are met, then there is social
solidarity and unity. If it is unable to accomplish what it set out to do, the
institution will become dysfunctional, and a condition of discontent will
spread across the population. The following are some of the primary roles that
social institutions play in today's societies across the globe.
Everything we see in our daily lives—from the human race to the
commodities and services we take for granted to the traditions we hold dear—are
all products of the institutions that sustain them. A family is the basic unit
of human reproduction. Economic institutions are responsible for the production
and distribution of tangible products and services. The production and
enforcement of power, authority, position, and role are the functions of
political institutions. Products of religious organisations include rituals,
values, beliefs, and rites of passage. Many people's access to new skills and
lifestyles is facilitated by the resources made available at educational
institutions.
All these establishments work to perpetuate societal standards by passing
them on to its members. Early childhood is the beginning of a lifelong process
of socialisation that lasts until death. Human beings are perpetual students.
Socialization refers to the process through which an individual learns the
norms and customs of a certain social group. The process of integrating a
person into society. Socialization. Because man resides in institutions, this
process occurs there. Only via formal education does he learn how to behave in
public. Folkways are the fundamental social mores that are often taught within
the context of a family. Community norms are imparted via the educational
institutions, and the lawful paths of social life are mapped out by the
community at large. The marketplaces and bazaars are our roadmaps in the
business world. When we engage in the customary social activities of our
religion, we may rely on the assistance of the religious organisations that
exist within it.
There is a reason for the creation of every kind of institution. When it
comes to education, nobody does it better than Harvard. No other types of
medication beyond those made under the Unani system are made in Hamdard
Dawakhana. Farmers in the area have access to fertiliser from the Pak-Arab
Fertilizer Factory in Multan, and residents have access to medical care thanks
to the city's hospitals. Similarly, kids who attend religious schools get an
education in the faith that the school promotes. This implies that the goals
and wants of the people are met by the institutions of society.
The Maintenance of Law and Order
Society's primary objective is to maintain law and order. In order to
accomplish this goal, it is necessary to establish structure among the
institutions. One institution's inability to exist without the help of and
affiliation with other institutions is self-evident. Organization describes how
they have come to rely on one another. This mutual reliance, however, is the
glue that holds the many institutions together. Tangency of Institutions refers
to the interdependence of various societal structures. As a whole, the
institutions are responsible for maintaining social order and stability. There
is a connection between this kind of control and order and the maintenance of
societal harmony. When society is well-ordered, people feel more connected to
one another and to their government. This responsibility for maintaining social
order and control falls mostly on political institutions.
Each and every one of these establishments is a concrete manifestation of
a certain cultural arrangement. If this cultural wealth is not passed on, it
will perish. As each new generation builds upon the foundation laid by the
previous one, it brings new insights and refinements to the table. Education,
both formal and informal, delivered by a wide range of social institutions, is
the last link in the chain of transmission. The marketplaces serve in a similar
capacity. The mosque, the bus ride, the wedding rituals, the civil service, and
the management of public affairs are all examples of institutions that serve as
transmitters of cultural qualities.
People's identities are moulded by the institutions they participate in.
If raised in the United States from birth, a kid of Indian or Pakistani parents
will develop an Americanized identity during the first decade of his life. This
disproves the biological explanation for individuality. It is an inherently
social process, and its outcomes are contingent on the institutions that foster
it. Institutional life fosters the development of an individual's personality.
How an individual's personality develops is influenced by the institutions that
socialise them and the society in which they live. The intricate web of
relationships between institutions is what gives society its distinctive
character. Personality is formed in the context of the different social
institutions in which an individual participates.
Similarly, the concept of "self" is a social construction
rather than a hardwired feature of the individual. A newborn lacks a sense of
identity. The youngster develops a sense of self-identity via his interactions
with members of his own family. A child's developing sense of self is reflected
in this growing awareness of self-importance. The development of one's sense of
self occurs mostly within the context of one's family.
Q.4 Discuss in detail the
basic concept of authority and state.
Authority is defined as the authority that comes with a position of
employment, both institutionally and legally, and which is necessary for the efficient
discharge of one's duties. It is a legal and formal designation. The term
"authority" refers to a formal permission granted by a superior
officer that allows an employee to carry out certain tasks inside an
organisation. For administrative purposes, this is crucial. No one can be fully
responsible for their responsibilities without proper authority. This involves
the authority to keep an eye on things, spend money, give commands, and insist
that they be followed. Then comes the time to answer for one's deeds, or lack
thereof. Real authority also usually implies that the target recognises the
authority.
Power and Authority as a
Concept
Managerial positions, like any other, need a certain degree of power to
succeed. Insofar as an organisation may be seen as a system of connections
between authorities, authority can be seen as the very foundation of the
institution itself. The word "registered dealer" also has a different
connotation, that of a legally constituted relationship, and "authority"
can refer to someone with superior expertise and skills in a particular field
or to certain officials like a police commissioner, a university vice
chancellor, or the managing director of a company. These conceptions of
authority may be fine for legal reasons, but they are inadequate for managerial
ones. If the higher-ups provide the Authority a problem to solve, it is their
call. Making choices is not enough. Those tasked with carrying out the decision
make the call. In this context, authority means the power to issue directives
and carry them out.
Traits of a Leader
Authority is the foundation for
getting things done because it gives you the legal authority to behave in a
certain way inside an organisation and to direct how other workers in that
company do their jobs. It has an immediate impact on the progress made toward
defined objectives.
In terms of legitimacy,
authority may be defined as a legal right that is subordinates can exercise
(within the company itself). This sort of legal protection arises from the general
acceptance of a certain custom, tradition, or set of rules within a certain
group or organisation. A manager's authority to direct the actions of his staff
is based on his position in the organisational structure.
Methods of Determination:
Authority requires the ability to make decisions. The manager has the authority
to direct the employees' actions or inaction. The office manager is responsible
for making such operational decisions. The manager's character might change as
a result of the implementation process. If a management makes a choice, his or
her subordinates or a group of subordinates should carry it out in accordance
with the boss's instructions. It is possible that the personality of one
manager is not going to be the same as that of another.
Ingredients of Power
There are 5 aspects of authority which are outlined here.
Usage of Power: In other words, there is a power when there is an
authority based on which the authorised person issues commands and instructions
to other individuals within his/her jurisdiction.
Assigning authority to a person with a commanding presence increases the
likelihood of that person's authority being respected and put to good use,
since followers are more likely to comply with his directives.
Authority requires the exercise of control over others in order to
function effectively. There are a number of paths to this kind of victory,
including submitting an application and receiving written instructions, etc.
The person in charge has to be an excellent leader so that he can advise his
followers and have them follow his orders. For the exercise of power to be
effective, the person in charge must be able to make a positive impression on
his subordinates so that they will accept and carry out his directives.
A State of What?
Most Americans probably picture places like Arkansas, Pennsylvania, or
Massachusetts when they hear the word "state." The rest of the world,
notably political scientists and historians, attach far more significance to
the word. Despite the fact that definitions of states tend to differ, a common
one is that of a politically unified entity with centralised authority that can
function independently of other states.
Every nation on Earth may be considered a state. Imagine Germany as an
example. Since the laws and policies of this political entity are not wholly
determined by those of any other nation or force, it may be described as
"self-governing." They are in a position of sovereignty, or absolute
independent authority. The people are bound by the laws of the nation, and the
government has the ability to convince or even compel its population to comply
with its demands. Centralized governments are able to levy taxes, pass and
execute legislation, and conscript their population to participate in wars.
Category of States
States come in a variety of forms. Listed below are some of the most
typical examples from different eras. Some states may fit into many different
types.
State belonging to a federation, whereby individual areas or provinces
have some degree of autonomy while nevertheless being under the authority of a
national government. These federally governed states are expected to abide by
federal law and share some of the federal government's sovereign rights.
In a city-state, the capital city also acts as the seat of government for
the surrounding area. These were widespread among ancient civilizations
including the Greeks, Mayans, and Romans.
The term "nation state" refers to a state whose boundaries were
established in conjunction with a certain ethnic or racial group. A community
of this kind can consist of people who speak the same language, have the same
cultural norms, or be of the same ethnic background.
This term, "sovereign states," may be unfamiliar to you. Does
not every nation have the right to its own defence? A "sovereign
state," where one person has absolute authority over all aspects of
government, has traditionally been referred to by this name. In this way, one
might think of the monarchs of mediaeval Europe. Several of these rulers had absolute
control in their country.
Growth in Power
Scholars of politics have proposed many explanations for the emergence of
the earliest states. The advent of agriculture is often seen as the catalyst
for the rise of the first civilizations. In the past, most people lived in
nomadic bands, often relocating to new areas to engage in activities like as
hunting, gathering, and fishing. When people learned how to farm and keep
domesticated animals, they could start establishing permanent communities.
People flocked to the riverbanks there because of the easy access to water and
transportation, and later learned to control the river's flow via irrigation.
When people no longer had to spend all their time collecting and hunting
for food, they could focus on other activities. One popular explanation for the
emergence of modern governments is that population growth necessitated the
establishment of authoritative government and codified legal norms. Governments
at the federal level were established to ensure the safety of citizens and
their possessions, as well as to levy taxes to finance standing armies. The
origin of a state's power would evolve significantly throughout time.
The Balance of Power in a
State
When power is centralised, it is exercised exclusively by the state. It
is so potent because it uses coercion channelled via a formalised structure.
These institutions have been long-standing parts of society. The armed forces
of each nation, for instance, function as a distinct organisation with its own
culture and set of values. Within the system, these ideals are reinforced. As a
result of the government's delegated authority, these groups wield power in
society. Many governments deploy their armed forces onto the streets during
times of civil unrest. Institutions are extremely powerful, as evidenced by
their ability to persuade thousands of people to suppress a protest by their
fellow citizens. In addition to courts, legislatures, and law enforcement
agencies, states often have state-run agencies that oversee industries like
commerce, agriculture, and education. The legitimacy of a state's monopoly on
power depends on its ability to persuade its subjects that the government
should be under their complete control. Most states have two main sources of
power.
Q.5 Write notes on the
following terms:
i) Functions of religion
The following are some of the most important roles that religion plays in
society, demonstrating how it is both universal and multifaceted. Faith and
Anxiety: Life may be difficult and frustrating. It is the only thing that can
alleviate people's anger over the interconnected social, economic, and
political issues that plague our society. When we do not achieve certain
objectives in life, it may be quite frustrating, and religion is often the source
of this oppression.
Faith teaches that all people are created equal. When seen through the
lens of a religious belief system, there are no superiors or inferiors.
According to Islamic teachings, neither Arabs nor non-Arabs are given any
special status. Religion, therefore, fosters a more egalitarian society.
Religion and Cooperation: It inspires the spirit of helping others and
working together. The concept's overarching goal is to inspire goodwill toward
others and the willingness to provide a hand to those in need. As a result,
religious beliefs encourage the growth of cooperation in modern society.
Maintaining Social and Cultural Standards: Religion has always played
this role. Religions often forbid dishonest behaviour, therefore this has a
salutary effect by discouraging dishonesty, murder, deceit, and cheating.
Protection of cultural norms and standards.
Religion as a symbol of grandeur and self-importance for its adherents.
It convinces people that their country is superior to all others.
Religion is a respected academic institution. The mosques, churches, and
temples it spawned were the first and foremost centres of religious learning in
the West.
Fosters Open-mindedness: There is no other way to learn to accept
differences. At every turn of trial and tribulation, our Holy Prophet,
religious leaders, and reformers all taught tolerance.
Religion is the source of all cultural characteristics. Our ancient
architecture, art, music, dance, theatre, and fashion all owe their origins to
religious inspiration. Religion has also spawned literary works and scientific
discoveries.
Explicitly teaches its adherents to reject violence in favour of peaceful
resolutions to conflict. Spreading the message of love and fraternity among
everyone.
The links of social welfare in society were reinforced by religious
practise. Religion teaches people to better themselves and to dedicate
themselves to helping others.
The process of integrating individuals is aided by this. Those who share
the belief that all religions ultimately lead to the same God have joined
forces. Therefore, the absence of religious belief precludes integration.
Religion is the only known method of alleviating both anxiety and dread.
In the face of setbacks, it fosters optimism and the will to succeed. Do not
give up on God's kindness, it states in the Quran.
It establishes communication between humans and the divine. Morality and
social grace are imparted along the route. It lays forth the guidelines by
which one might gain God's favour and keep from incurring his wrath.
When it comes to raising well-rounded, well-adjusted kids, religion may
be a powerful force for good. It imparts accepted norms of behaviour and
thought upon its adherents. A child's development as a social being is
profoundly impacted by his or her Muslim upbringing.
A common religious belief may serve as a unifying force for a community.
People of the same religious persuasion tend to get along well with one another
and share same norms, beliefs, values, and practises. Muslims all throughout
the world show their unity during Islamic conventions.
Respect and honour for one's fellow man is a lesson learned. It
strengthens the bonds of esteem between people. As a result, they learn to
respect the lives, possessions, beliefs, and perspectives of others around
them.
Brings about cleanliness It brings about cleanliness on all levels,
including the physical, the social, and the spiritual. Purity of body,
clothing, food, and words is a fundamental tenet of all major religious
traditions. Being unclouded and unimpaired in every facet of one's existence.
Initiate Social Alteration: It opens up possibilities for societal
transformation. For example, in Arab Budoos, it has helped to lead people out
of the shadows of ignorance and into the light of literacy and progress. As a
result, the economy, culture, and society all undergo transformations.
One Method of Maintaining Order in Society Most individuals do not murder
others or commit other sins because of respect for God, which serves as a kind
of social control. Therefore, it provides a high degree of management over
one's social life. As a remedy for societal ills, As such, it provides a quick
and easy answer to societal issues. It is useful for addressing a wide range of
societal issues. If you compare our culture to the secular world, you will see
that we do not have nearly as many issues. Problems that modern civilization
must.
ii) Agents of social change
Whether individually or in
concert, shifts in technology, social structures, population, and the natural
environment all contribute to the development of new situations. We will go
over how these can bring about positive social change and look at some examples
down below. We will zero in on the four change-inducing factors that have been
identified by social scientists: technological advancement, social
institutions, population growth, and environmental factors.
Some would argue that the
advancement of technology has simplified our lives. Visualize going about your
day without modern conveniences like the internet, the automobile, or even
electricity. Thomas Friedman argues in his 2005 book, The World Is Flat, that
technological advancements are the primary force behind globalisation, while
other factors such as social institutions, population, and environment play
secondary roles. He argues that the process of globalisation can be broken down
into three phases. In the beginning, military expansion pushed for
globalisation, and it was fueled by horsepower and wind power. From the late
15th century to roughly 1800, the countries that were best able to exploit
these power sources grew at the fastest rates and exerted the most influence
over international politics. The second, shorter time period saw an
increasingly interconnected economy from roughly 1800 to 2000 CE. During this
time, steam and rail power drove social transformation and globalisation. Now
that we are well past the turn of the millennium, Friedman takes us into the
future. Technology, especially the internet, is the primary agent of change in
today's era of rapid globalisation (Friedman 2005).
However, the other three forces
that social scientists ascribe to societal transformation can also be
influenced by technological advancements. With the help of modern medicine,
infertile women are able to have children. Agriculture has changed in many ways
as a result of technological advancements that have enabled us to patent and
genetically modify food goods. In today's world, technology has altered every
facet of human existence, from how children are taught in schools to how food
is grown.
There will inevitably be
drawbacks. The "digital divide," or widening gap between those who
have access to modern technology and those who do not, is a problem on a global
as well as a national scale. Loss of privacy, the potential for total system
failure (a la the Y2K scare), and the heightened vulnerability brought on by
over-reliance on technology are all additional security concerns. Consider the
equipment used to keep nuclear power plants secure and running smoothly. What
if an earthquake or other disaster, like the one that hit Japan's Fukushima
plant, causes the technology to malfunction? What if a deliberate attack on our
country's relatively weak technological infrastructure were to occur?
Organizing the Social World
Any change in one social
institution has a ripple effect across society. For instance, as a result of
industrialization, big families are not necessary to generate sufficient labour
for farms anymore. Additionally, new employment opportunities were close to
urban centres where housing was expensive. The average family size consequently
decreased.
We now see government
involvement in the private sector in a different light, we have a global
economy, we have new political platforms, and we even have new religions and
new forms of worship, like Scientology, all because of the trend toward
industrial corporate entities. It has also influenced how we educate our
children; historically, schools were organised around the agricultural calendar
so that children could spend the summers at home helping their parents work the
fields, and even today, teaching models are largely based on preparing students
for industrial jobs, even though this is a largely obsolete need. This
demonstrates how changes in one area, like industrialization, can have
far-reaching effects on other spheres of society.
The make-up of the population is
shifting at all societal scales. In some countries, the birthrate is rising
while in others, it is falling. While some families choose to wait, others
begin expanding their broods at an early age. Changes in population can occur
for a variety of reasons, including those already mentioned (such as an
epidemic) or those that are more subtle (such as a shift in social
institutions). It does not matter what causes population shifts or how they
manifest themselves, the effects on society as a whole are far-reaching and
interconnected.
The retirement of the baby
boomer generation has led to a surge in the senior population in the United
States, which will have far-reaching implications for the way many of our
social institutions are structured. Such changes include a dramatic uptick in
the demand for elder care and assisted living facilities and a rising
consciousness about the prevalence of elder abuse. As baby boomers begin to
retire, there will be a significant loss of experienced workers and a resulting
void in institutional knowledge. In addition, when this massive generation
begins to retire, the country's financial stability is put at risk by the
decline in tax revenue and the increased strain on pension and retirement
schemes.
However, nations with higher
fertility rates tend to be the least prepared to handle a rapidly expanding
population. To prevent having more children than one's resources can support,
family planning is a crucial measure. Globally, the rising population puts a
strain on the Earth's resources, especially in the poorest regions.
Natural World
When we consider human ecology,
we realise that people and their environments are interconnected. The number of
individuals impacted by natural disasters rises as human populations expand
into more precarious locations, and the effect of these catastrophes rises as a
result of human involvement with the environment. The greater the global population,
the greater the potential for human casualties in the event of a natural
catastrophe.
But it is not even the whole
story. There are now too many people on the planet, putting a strain on
resources. We have depleted water tables, eroded shorelines for construction,
and irrigated vast swaths of land using water trucked in from other states. The
destruction of houses along the shore and the imminent danger that drought
poses to whole communities should not come as a surprise to anybody. There were
around a dozen meteorological disasters in 2011 that cost more than a billion
dollars each, making 2011 the unluckiest year on record for such catastrophes.
Tornadoes, floods, snowstorms, and droughts are just some of the ways the world
is highlighting our issues (CBS News 2011). As more people learn about these
problems as a result of these occurrences, society is gradually shifting for
the better.
The term
"modernization" refers to the processes through which cultures go
from being relatively unsophisticated to becoming highly sophisticated and
technology-driven (Irwin 1975). According to this definition, a society's
degree of modernity is determined by the extent to which its infrastructure,
industry, and similar spheres have adopted technological advances. However, the
ethnocentric bias of such evaluation must be taken into account. Assuming that
people in semi-peripheral and peripheral countries would want to catch up to
the standards of the core nations is a huge leap of faith. Can we always count
on good results from progress?
Many technological advancements
make claims about how much time they would save, but seldom deliver on those
promises. The number of times you have clenched your teeth in anger because a
website would not load or a call on your mobile phone was lost is probably more
than you would want to admit. The typical amount of time spent on housekeeping
has not changed in the last half-century, despite the widespread availability
of labor-saving appliances like dishwashers, washing machines, and (most
recently) remote control vacuum cleaners. With the advent of email and
instantaneous information, workers are expected to be more accessible and
responsive than before. Once upon a time, commercial operations moved at the
snail's pace of the United States postal system, with each step delayed until
the previous one was completed. However, with today's instantaneous information
transmission, no such delays are necessary.
In addition, the internet
provided us with information, but it came at a price. Because of the
information overload, it is just as easy to find fake news as it is reliable
data. When advanced countries try to impose their version of modernity on less
developed ones, they have to tread carefully. It is myopic of western
governments and social scientists to assume that all other nations want to
follow in their footsteps, and there are evident pro-capitalist biases that go
into such initiatives. Further, there might be a neoliberal defence of rural
cultures, which privileges a mythology of the contented peasant above the
reality of crushing poverty and sickness in developing countries. Understanding
the importance of cultural identity and preservation while also accounting for
future development prospects requires a deft touch.