IT Basics
(260)
Q.No.1 Define assembly language. How assembly language differs from machine language? Write the mnemonics for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division used in assemmbly language. (20)
Machine language is the low level
programming language. Machine language can only be
represented by 0s and 1s. In earlier when we have to create a
picture or show data on the screen of the computer then it is very difficult to
draw using only binary digits(0s and 1s). For example: To write 120 in the
computer system its representation is 1111000. So it is very difficult to
learn. To overcome this problem the assembly language is invented.
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Assembly language is the more than low level and less than
high-level language so it is intermediary language. Assembly languages use numbers, symbols, and abbreviations instead of
0s and 1s.For example: For addition, subtraction and multiplications it uses
symbols likes Add, sub and Mul, etc. Below is a table of differences
between Machine Language and Assembly Language:
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|
Machine Language |
Assembly Language |
|
Machine language is only understand by the
computers. |
Assembly language is only understand by human
beings not by the computers. |
|
In machine language data only represented
with the help of binary format(0s and 1s), hexadecimal and octadecimal. |
In assembly language data can be represented
with the help of mnemonics such as Mov, Add, Sub, End etc. |
|
Machine language is very difficult to
understand by the human beings. |
Assembly language is easy to understand by
the human being as compare to machine language. |
|
Modifications and error fixing cannot be done
in machine language. |
Modifications and error fixing can be done in
assembly language. |
|
Machine language is very difficult to
memorize so it is not possible to learn the machine language. |
Easy to memorize the assembly language
because some alphabets and mnemonics are used. |
|
Execution is fast in machine language because
all data is already present in binary format. |
Execution is slow as compared to machine
language. |
|
There is no need of translator.The machine
understandable form is the machine language. |
Assembler is used as translator to convert
mnemonics into machine understandable form. |
|
Machine language is hardware dependent. |
Assembly language is the machine dependent
and it is not portable. |
Q.No.2 Differentiate between highl level languages and low level
languages. List down at least five highl level languages and also explain which
one is best and why.
Both High level language and low level language are the programming languages’s types.
The main difference between high level language and low level language is that, Programmers can easily
understand or interpret or compile the high level language in comparison of
machine. On the other hand, Machine can easily understand the low level
language in comparison of human beings.
Examples of high level languages are C, C++, Java, Python, etc.
Let’s see the difference
between high level and low level languages:
|
S.NO |
High Level Language |
Low Level Language |
|
1. |
It is programmer friendly language. |
It is a machine friendly language. |
|
2. |
High level language is less memory efficient. |
Low level language is high memory efficient. |
|
3. |
It is easy to understand. |
It is tough to understand. |
|
4. |
It is simple to debug. |
It is complex to debug comparatively. |
|
5. |
It is simple to maintain. |
It is complex to maintain comparatively. |
|
6. |
It is portable. |
It is non-portable. |
|
7. |
It can run on any platform. |
It is machine-dependent. |
|
8. |
It needs compiler or interpreter for
translation. |
It needs assembler for translation. |
|
9. |
It is used widely for programming. |
It is not commonly used now-a-days in
programming. |
Q.No.3 Explain the following: (20)
a. Disk drivers
A disk drive is a technology that enables the reading, writing,
deleting and modifying of data on a computer storage disk. It is either a
built-in or external component of a disk that manages the disk's input/output
(I/O) operations.
A disk partition in a hard disk is also known as a disk drive, such
as drive C and drive D, etc.
A disk drive is one of the most important computer components that
helps users store and retrieve data from a disk. The nature and type of disk
drive vary on par with the underlying disk.
For example, a hard disk, which is known as a hard disk drive
(HDD), is generally embedded within the disk itself. For floppy disks, an
external component is installed within a computer and performs read/write (R/W)
operations when a floppy disk is inserted.
A disk drive is a physical drive in a computer capable of holding
and retrieving information. Below is a list of all the different types of
computer disk drives.
b. Scanners
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic
prints, posters, magazine pages and similar sources for computer editing and
display.
Scanners work by converting the image on the document into digital
information that can be stored on a computer through optical character
recognition (OCR).
This process is done by a scanning head, which uses one or more
sensors to capture the image as light or electrical charges.
The document scanner moves either the physical document or the
scanning head, depending on the type of scanner. Then, the scanner processes
the scanned image and produces a digital image that can be stored on a
computer.
Scanners usually attach to a computer system and come with scanning
software applications that let you resize and otherwise modify a captured
image.
If a printer is hooked up to the computer, you could print a second
hard copy of the scanned image and store it in digital format.
What types of scanners are available?
Modern scanners come in handheld, feed-in and flatbed types and are
for scanning black-and-white only or color.
Flatbed scanners are the most common type of scanner. They are
called "flatbed" because the document is placed on a flat surface for
scanning. Flatbed scanners can scan documents of various sizes and are
generally more versatile than sheetfed scanners.
Sheetfed scanners are designed to scan documents fed into the
scanner one at a time. Scanners with automatic document feeders are smaller and
more portable than flatbed scanners and are often used in home offices or small
businesses.
Handheld scanners are portable scanners that are smaller than
flatbed scanners. They are designed for scanning documents on the go, such as
newspaper articles or printed photos.
3D scanners are a bit different than traditional scanners in that
they collect distance point measurements from a real-world object and translate
them into a virtual 3D object.
However, it's also worth noting that scanners are embedded in other
devices such as photocopiers, barcode scanners and fax machines used to make
copies of documents and images.
In addition to the intended purpose of a scanner, a buyer will also
need to know the type of image resolution they need from the scanner.
printer and scanner combination, multifunction device
Printer with built-in scanner
What is scanner resolution?
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels captured by the
scanner sensor and is measured in dots per inch (dpi). The higher the dpi, the
greater the scanner's ability to capture detail.
For example, a scanner with a resolution of 1200 dpi can capture
1200 pixels per inch of an image.
Very high-resolution image scanners are used for scanning for
high-resolution printing, but lower-resolution scanners are adequate for
capturing high-quality images for computer display.
The scanner's resolution is determined by the number of sensors in
the scanning head.
Manufacturers of scanners
Some major manufacturers of scanners include Epson, Hewlett
Packard, Microtek and Relisys. These companies offer a variety of scanner types
and resolutions from which to choose.
For example, Epson offers flatbed and handheld scanners, with
resolutions ranging from 300 dpi to 12800 dpi.
Hewlett Packard offers sheetfed and flatbed scanners, with
resolutions ranging from 1200 dpi to 4800 dpi.
Microtek manufactures only flatbed scanners, with resolutions
ranging from 1200 dpi to 3200 dpi.
Relisys manufactures both sheetfed and flatbed scanners, with
resolutions up to 2400 dpi.
When choosing a scanner, consider the type of scanner you need as
well as the image resolution you require. Pricing varies depending on the
brand, type, resolution and whether it is intended for personal or business
use.
Decide on a budget first, then compare the features offered by
different manufacturers to find the scanner that best meets your needs.
Q.No.4 Elaborate input and output devices with at least three
examples of each. Also tell which type of device is a mouse?
An input device is any device that allows you to enter data into a
computer and interact with it. Common input devices include keyboards, computer
mice, touchpads and touchscreens. You also learned about the basics of digital
cameras, scanners and readers such as radio-frequency identification (RFID),
magnetic strip and OCR readers. Other input devices are video and audio input
devices such as webcams and microphones, and biometric input devices such as
fingerprint scanners.
Output devices take the processed input from a computer and display
it in a way that is easy for humans to understand. Screens are the main output
devices of any computer. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and LED screens are the
most popular types. Printers are another common type of output device. There
are two main printer types, namely inkjet and laser printers.
Headsets and speakers are designed for audio output, with other
output devices being fax machines, multifunction devices (which combine faxing,
emailing and printing) and data projectors.
Processing components include hardware such as the:
Motherboard, which connects the components in a computer and houses
the ports, such as the universal serial bus (USB), video graphics array (VGA)
and high-definition multimedia interface (HDMI) ports to connect input and
output devices.
Central processing unit (CPU), which receives and carries out the
instructions inputted by the user.
Graphics processing unit (GPU), which makes the calculations and
follows the instructions necessary to display images on a screen.
Storage devices are the computer components designed to keep (or
store) data. This data can be the information needed to make the computer
function, such as the operating system or basic input/output system (BIOS), or
data created by the user, such as images, documents, text files and so on.
These components, called storage media or storage devices, are any
piece of computing hardware used to keep or store data files. They can hold and
store information permanently or temporarily and can be internal or external.
Internal storage media, such as hard drives and RAM, are inside a
computer and part of it, while external hard drives and USB drives are outside
a computer and can be removed easily and quickly.
2.1 Input devices
As you learned in Chapter 1, a computer works using the information
processing cycle. Input devices are the key components of the first stage of
the cycle, the input stage. Input devices are what we use to interact with a
computer. These can be things such as keyboards and computer mice, touchpads
and scanners. The combination of keyboard and mouse used to be the most common
input device, but the rise of the smartphone has made the touchscreen the most
popular and common input device in the modern age.
There has also been a rise in the use of alternative input devices,
such as fingerprint and face recognition to unlock your smartphone, and
speech-to-type devices that are used by people with physical challenges.
There are a number of input devices that you can use with
computers. Table 2.1 lists these devices, their uses, and their advantages and
disadvantages.
WHAT DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE IMAGE TAKEN BY A SCANNER OR
CAMERA?
There are three main factors that determine the quality of the
image taken by a scanner. These are:
1. Colour depth
2. Resolution
3. Dynamic range
Colour depth is also known as bit depth and refers to the number of
bits used to indicate the colours of a single pixel. The higher the bit number,
the better the colour depth. You can see this in Figure
The image on the left is in 32-bit colour while the image on the
right is in 8-bit colour. In the image on the left, the details in the
background are sharper and the colour of the leaf is deeper and more vibrant
compared to the image on the right.
Resolution is the amount of detail an image can hold and it is
measured in pixels per inch (ppi) or dots per inch (dpi). These measurements
show you how many dots or pixels are in a one-inch square (an inch is about 2,5
cm). The higher the ppi or dpi, the more information there is in the square.
This means that the image will be of higher quality.
The final quality factor is the dynamic range. This measures the
range of light the scanner can read and use to produce a range of tones and
colours.
Camera quality is determined by three factors:
1. Resolution
2. Lens aperture
3. Focal length
Resolution is the amount of detail that a camera can capture. In
digital cameras, resolution is measured in megapixels.
The lens aperture is the maximum amount that the lens can open. The
wider it opens, the more light it can take in, which means that you need less
light to take a good picture.
How much a camera can zoom is determined by its focal length. The
focal length is shown by a number and the times symbol (×). A zoom of 3× means
that the longest focal length is 3× the distance of the shortest focal length.
Q.No.5 How many types of memories are there in a computer? Also name
and explain which computer memory is static and volatile. (20)
Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and
data a computer needs to reach quickly. It's where information is stored for
immediate use. Memory is one of the basic functions of a computer, because
without it, a computer would not be able to function properly. Memory is also
used by a computer's operating system, hardware and software.
There are technically two types of computer memory: primary and
secondary. The term memory is used as a synonym for primary memory or as an
abbreviation for a specific type of primary memory called random access memory
(RAM). This type of memory is located on microchips that are physically close
to a computer's microprocessor.
If a computer's central processer (CPU) had to only use a secondary
storage device, computers would become much slower. In general, the more memory
(primary memory) a computing device has, the less frequently the computer must
access instructions and data from slower (secondary) forms of storage.
How primary, secondary and cache memory relate to each other
This image shows how primary, secondary and cache memory relate to
each other in terms of size and speed.
Memory vs. storage
The concept of memory and storage can be easily conflated as the
same concept; however, there are some distinct and important differences. Put
succinctly, memory is primary memory, while storage is secondary memory. Memory
refers to the location of short-term data, while storage refers to the location
of data stored on a long-term basis.
Memory is most often referred to as the primary storage on a
computer, such as RAM. Memory is also where information is processed. It enables
users to access data that is stored for a short time. The data is only stored
for a short time because primary memory is volatile, meaning it isn't retained
when the computer is turned off.
The term storage refers to secondary memory and is where data in a
computer is kept. An example of storage is a hard drive or a hard disk drive
(HDD). Storage is nonvolatile, meaning the information is still there after the
computer is turned off and then back on. A running program may be in a
computer's primary memory when in use -- for fast retrieval of information --
but when that program is closed, it resides in secondary memory or storage.
How much space is available in memory and storage differs as well.
In general, a computer will have more storage space than memory. For example, a
laptop may have 8 GB of RAM while having 250 GB of storage. The difference in
space is there because a computer will not need fast access to all the
information stored on it at once, so allocating approximately 8 GB of space to
run programs will suffice.
The terms memory and storage can be confusing because their usage
today is not always consistent. For example, RAM can be referred to as primary
storage -- and types of secondary storage can include flash memory. To avoid
confusion, it can be easier to talk about memory in terms of whether it is
volatile or nonvolatile -- and storage in terms of whether it is primary or
secondary.
How does computer memory work?
When a program is open, it is loaded from secondary memory to
primary memory. Because there are different types of memory and storage, an
example of this could be a program being moved from a solid-state drive (SSD)
to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed faster, the opened program will be
able to communicate with the computer's processor at quicker speeds. The
primary memory can be accessed immediately from temporary memory slots or other
storage locations.
Memory is volatile, which means that data in memory is stored
temporarily. Once a computing device is turned off, data stored in volatile
memory will automatically be deleted. When a file is saved, it will be sent to
secondary memory for storage.
There are multiple types of memory available to a computer. It will
operate differently depending on the type of primary memory used, but in
general, semiconductor-based memory is most associated with memory.
Semiconductor memory will be made of integrated circuits with silicon-based
metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors.
Types of computer memory
In general, memory can be divided into primary and secondary
memory; moreover, there are numerous types of memory when discussing just
primary memory. Some types of primary memory include the following
Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is
more readily available to the processor than the computer's main memory source.
It is also called CPU memory because it is typically integrated directly into
the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.
RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be
accessed directly by the processor.
Dynamic RAM. DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that is
typically used by the data or program code needed by a computer processor to
function.
Static RAM. SRAM retains data bits in its memory for as long as
power is supplied to it. Unlike DRAM, which stores bits in cells consisting of
a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed.
Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically
improve memory clock speed to at least 200 MHz.
Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of
DRAM that has a high-bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous
DDR2 and DDR3 versions. DDR4 RAM allows for lower voltage requirements and
higher module density. It is coupled with higher data rate transfer speeds and
allows for dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB.
Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to
transfer up to 1.6 billion bytes per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the
RAM controller, the bus that connects RAM to the microprocessor and devices in
the computer that use it.
Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing
nonvolatile, permanent data that, normally, can only be read and not written
to. ROM contains the programming that enables a computer to start up or
regenerate each time it is turned on.
Programmable ROM. PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user.
It enables a user to tailor a microcode program using a special machine called
a PROM programmer.
Erasable PROM. EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can
be erased and re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet
light through a window designed into the memory chip.
Electrically erasable PROM. EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM that
can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher
than normal electrical voltage. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be
removed from the computer to be modified. However, an EEPROM chip must be
erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively.
Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary
memory can be used as if it were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses
hardware and software to enable a computer to compensate for physical memory
shortages by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.
Timeline of the history and evolution of computer memory
In the early 1940s, memory was only available up to a few bytes of
space. One of the more significant signs of progress during this time was the
invention of acoustic delay line memory. This technology enabled delay lines to
store bits as sound waves in mercury, and quartz crystals to act as transducers
to read and write bits. This process could store a few hundred thousand bits.
In the late 1940s, nonvolatile memory began to be researched, and magnetic-core
memory -- which enabled the recall of memory after a loss of power -- was
created. By the 1950s, this technology had been improved and commercialized and
led to the invention of PROM in 1956. Magnetic-core memory became so widespread
that it was the main form of memory until the 1960s.
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, also known as
MOS semiconductor memory, was invented in 1959. This enabled the use of MOS
transistors as elements for memory cell storage. MOS memory was cheaper and
needed less power compared to magnetic-core memory. Bipolar memory, which used
bipolar transistors, started being used in the early 1960s.
In 1961, Bob Norman proposed the concept of solid-state memory
being used on an integrated circuit (IC) chip. IBM brought memory into the
mainstream in 1965. However, users found solid-state memory to be too expensive
to use at the time compared to other memory types. Other advancements during
the early to mid-1960s were the invention of bipolar SRAM, Toshiba's
introduction of DRAM in 1965 and the commercial use of SRAM in 1965. The
single-transistor DRAM cell was developed in 1966, followed by a MOS
semiconductor device used to create ROM in 1967. From 1968 to the early 1970s,
N-type MOS (NMOS) memory also started to become popularized.
By the early 1970s, MOS-based memory started becoming much more
widely used as a form of memory. In 1970, Intel had the first commercial DRAM
IC chip. One year later, erasable PROM was developed and EEPROM was invented in
1972.
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Student,
Ye sample
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hasil krne k lye ham c contact kren:
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