Q.1 What are
the three types of language textbooks? Explain some of the issues developing
language textbooks for non-native learners.
A textbook is "a book used as a standard work for the study of a specific topic," according to the Oxford
English Dictionary. Because of this, textbooks may be found in a wide variety of forms and styles, each tailored to the specific needs of a particular topic and age group. Although printed textbooks on paper are still widely used, many publishers and especially self-publishers are turning to digital media to disseminate their works in order to better support classroom teaching and student achievement.Because of variations in quality, not all
textbooks will be suitable for this purpose. Most of these features are likely
to be familiar to you from the textbooks you have used. Since there are more
successful methods than others, it makes sense to take into account what we
know about effective teaching and how students learn best to enhance the
textbooks' ability to aid in both. Together with Apache-speaking academics from
the San Carlos and White Mountain reservations, we created two experimental
textbooks for learning the language. The second book was a teacher's manual for
the Total Physical Response (TPR) approach to teaching Apache (Asher, 1982).
There were several issues brought up by both methods, some of which may be
mitigated by combining them. For instance, the classificatory handling verbs
are best taught using a grammar-translation approach supplemented by TPR-style
exercises; simple syntactic structures (at least in Apache), such as negation
and yes-no questions, can be taught using TPR exercises and supplemented by
grammatical explanations. Any text should also be reviewed by native
specialists to ensure that no politically or culturally sensitive information
is included. Last but not least, linguists and native specialists need to have
a conversation to determine how much linguistic terminology may be handled in
each curriculum. Though I intended our textbook to primarily be used to
instruct Western Apache speakers and students in the fundamentals of the
language, with a focus on reading and writing, I also hoped that it would be
used to shed light on the linguistics of the Western Apache language. In the
next lines, I will discuss how linguistics might benefit Apache speakers. Her
talk in this book will also deal with some of these topics. The study of
language is known as linguistics. Because of its superficial similarities to
grammar, many non-specialists see linguistics as dull. No one has fond memories
of studying English grammar in grade school or high school. The difficulty with
conventional English grammar is that it did not appear to have a goal, or maybe
the sole point was that it informed you what was "excellent" English
and what was "poor" English, without really explaining why. There are
three ways in which linguistics aims to be a more responsible study of grammar.
First, it aims to explain why things are the way they are, by seeking to
establish general norms but admitting that occasionally an explanation has not
(yet) been discovered. Second, it aims to explain how people talk as precisely
as possible without focusing too much on whether a given statement is
"right" or "incorrect." As a third point, linguistics is
agnostic about spoken tongues. Language is a generally human skill, and
linguistics is the study of what all languages have in common and in which
direction and to what degree they differ. Many teachers may be curious in the
linguistics in this book and how they may apply it to their work with pupils on
the reserve. My view is that linguistics may help Native American educators in
three main ways. First, most teachers who are interested in this book do so
because they encounter circumstances when both the Native language and English
are employed. When put in such a position, it is impossible to avoid reflecting
about the distinctions between tongues. Contrastive linguistics is a
specialisation within the linguistics profession (sometimes erroneously called
comparative linguistics, which should be reserved for the subfield that
compares languages in order to determine their common historical origin). A
study of language that compares and contrasts two or more languages. Different
grammatical structures are emphasised. We can provide more convincing reasons
for why non-native speakers of English or Western Apache may find it
challenging to pick up certain linguistic nuances. The implications for the
classroom are plain to see. Because it will be presumed that English grammar is
distinct from Western Apache grammar in many ways, our studies of Western
Apache grammar will be, in effect, contrastive. There are no books or articles
that compare and contrast Western Apache and English that I am aware of. I was
tasked with clarifying our existing knowledge of comparative linguistics. Hale
argues persuasively that this method of discovery via conversation is just as
scientific as the discussion between a teacher and student in a physics or
chemistry classroom. Only a blackboard and the kids' innate understanding of
the target language are required, rather than pricey materials. The methods of
scientific enquiry may, then, be taught using linguistics. In order to utilise
linguistics this way, educators themselves need to know something about the
linguistic structure of their languages. Although I can understand her point, I
was not persuaded of the need, since it is the youngsters who are swiftly
losing their native ability and acquiring, at most, a passive knowledge of Apache.
When trying to uncover unspoken norms, a passive knowledge is clearly inferior
to an active one.
Q.2 Critically
examine the textbook and evaluation at secondary level in Pakistan?
Historian Ayesha Jalal writes that the state history is mostly the
product of imaginative leaps in order to carve out a national-past in
accordance with hegemonic principles in a paper she published in the
International Journal of Middle East Studies in 1995. According to her,
Pakistan's history books are excellent resources for analysing the relationship
between authoritarianism and bigotry. However, she also pointed out that the
country's strict state-controlled education system and curriculum inculcates
this revisionist history into the minds of the masses in order to advance the
country's national ideology.
To Jalal, these discrepancies are precious instances of narrative
confusions arising from conflicts between the notion of Muslim nationalism and
the geographical boundaries of the Pakistani nation-state. While some pan-Islamic
ideologists connect the period with Islam's establishment on the Arabian
Peninsula, others take a less emotionally invested view, recognising the
geographical and chronological distance between the two events. An Introduction
to Design (a popular textbook required for first- and second-year college
students pursuing a Bachelor of Arts in history) asserts that Pakistan is an
Islamic State governed by Allah and is more than a mere geographical entity;
rather, it is an ideology reflecting a unique civilization and culture, one
that arose out of an effort to counter Hindu Nationalism's imposition on Muslim
masses and the unethical practises of Hinduism. A Text Book of Designing,
another textbook, writes that "Pakistan came to be founded for the first
time when the Arabs under Mohammad bin Qasim invaded Sindh and Multan," so
equating the Indian subcontinent with Pakistan and naming Aurangzeb as the
country's greatest king. Anti-Indian and anti-Hindu biases contribute to these
problems. K. Ali's two-volume history for B.A. students always refers to the
post-1947 boundaries of Pakistan, although covering the pre-history of the
'Indo-Pakistan' subcontinent all the way back to the Paleolithic Age and
describing the Dravidians and the Aryans. Because of the (claimed) Hindu enmity
showed against the Muslims during the Independence movement and the fact that
the subcontinent was dominated by Muslims for centuries, he ultimately
advocates for the formation of the nation-state, founded on a religious
ideology. Jameel Jalibi and other academics have questioned the veracity of
national histories of Pakistan that focus on the country's "pre-Islamic
past." Jalal takes notice of Ali's claims to develop reactionary religious
intolerance, as a cornerstone of Pakistan's statehood. Jalal mentions a
textbook in which Zulifiqar Ali Bhutto is shown as a drunken, characterless,
and un-Islami-minded guy due to his communist leanings in society and politics,
whereas Zia ul Hak and his totalitarian martial rule are widely acclaimed for
their adherence to Islamic principles. One source warns that regionalism is a
"particularly hazardous event" due to the growing visibility of
minority groups such as the Balochs, Sindhis, etc. The document went on to say
that promoting "regional languages and lore's" was a threat to the
state's basic foundations and that Punjabism should never be permitted to
supplant the Islamic culture since its patron figures had waged war against
Islamic monarchs. Textbooks often elevate Urdu above other spoken languages,
presenting it as a symbol of the Islamic world as a whole.
Despite their differences in tone, style, and breadth, all of these
stories eventually back Pakistan's Islamization agenda and the two-nation
theory, which holds that the unbeatable triumvirate of Muslims, Islam, and
Pakistan cannot be questioned. Jalal accuses them of ignoring Jinnah's
secularist pleas, despite the fact that many Muslims are against the division
and subjection of regional populations. She sees a larger goal in teaching Muslim
children to reject everything in their own cultures that is not
"Islamic" and instead to seek spiritual and cultural dominance in the
name of Islam. Anti-Indian and anti-Hindu biases contribute to these problems.
Prof. Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr of Tufts University claims that the
rise of Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi and the militant Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami in
Pakistan contributed to a rise in anti-Indian sentiment there.
[5] Textbooks in Pakistani schools (both "secular" and
Islamic madrassahs) were rewritten to promote a biassed and revisionist
historiography of the Indian subcontinent that propagated Indophobic and
anti-Hindu prejudices because of Indophobia, Anti-Hinduism, and racist
ideologies like the martial race theory. Pakistan's history is being drastically
rewritten, using a combination of these stories and Islamist propaganda.
Textbook board publications used in all government schools promote an
obscurantist worldview by spreading ideas like jihad, the inferiority of
non-Muslims, India's imagined entrenched animosity with Pakistan, etc.
Historian Professor Mubarak Ali claims that Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's 1971 addition
of Designing textbooks and Islamic studies to the national curriculum marked
the beginning of textbook "reform" in Pakistan. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq,
a former military dictator, began the practise of historical revisionism in
earnest and capitalised on this project as part of a broader push towards
Islamization. Pakistani leaders have instilled in their young people from the
get-go the idea that their country was founded on religious principles; this
has led to intolerance for other faiths and a desire to eradicate them
altogether. The Islamist revisionism of Pakistani schools began in 1976, when
an act of parliament mandated that all government and private schools (except
those teaching the British O-levels from Grade 9) follow a curriculum that
includes learning outcomes for the federally approved Grade 5 social studies
class such as: "Acknowledge and identify forces that may be working against
Pakistan," "Make speeches on Jihad," and "Collect pictures
of holy sites." Yvette Rosser has made similar claims regarding Pakistani
textbooks, accusing them of minimising the persecution of religious minorities
and promoting "jingoist and irredentist views" about Pakistan's
history and culture. Claims of "eternal Pakistan" (despite the
country's creation from British India only in 1947) and a sectarian, intolerant
interpretation of Islam (such as the belief that all banking is un-Islamic) are
examples of irredentism, as are accusations of dual loyalty against Pakistan's
Hindu and Christian minorities. Professor Tariq Rahman of Pakistan claims that
any reference to Hindus in Pakistani textbooks must include derogatory
language. The pre-Islamic history of Pakistan is not taught in school unless it
is to criticise the country's Hindu forebears. Khursheed Kamal Aziz, a
different Pakistani historian, has also criticised textbooks in his country. He
said that required education amounted to teaching "prescribed myths"
since textbooks include false information about the past. Aziz, after reviewing
66 textbooks used at different grade levels, said that they fostered hate of
Hindus, glorified war, and skewed Pakistan's history prior to 1947. A research
by Iftikhar Ahmad of Long Island University published in Current Issues in
Comparative Education in 2004 generated five findings from content analysis of
the social studies textbooks in Pakistan.
To begin with, the textbooks' content choices and thematic
organisation portray Islam as a political philosophy and a broad unifying
vision that all people are expected to embrace. Second, the textbooks
misrepresent the nation's cultural and political history in order to elevate
Islamic doctrine to the status of an article of religion. Third, non-Muslim
inhabitants of Pakistan are shown in an unfair light in the textbooks.
Fourth, the primary goal of civics, world history, and design
textbooks is to indoctrinate youngsters for an idealised Islamic state as
envisioned by Islamic theocrats. Fifth, although terms like "piety"
and "obedience" are emphasised, neither critical thinking nor civic
engagement are emphasised, and democratic ideals like "free speech,"
"equality," and "respect for cultural variety" are seldom
acknowledged.
According to research by Nayyar & Salim of the Sustainable
Development Policy Institute published in 2003, there is a growing tendency of
substituting the teaching of Designing textbooks for traditional subjects like
history and geography. Pre-Islamic South Asian history was formerly taught to
youngsters and is credited with contributing to the rich cultural variety of
modern-day Pakistan. Designing textbooks lack this comprehensive overview of
Pakistan's history. Kids are now taught that the arrival of the first Muslim in
India marks the beginning of Pakistan's official history. The study found that
the textbooks "encourage prejudice, bigotry, and discrimination towards
fellow Pakistanis and other nations, especially against religious minorities,
as well as the omission of concepts... that could encourage critical self
awareness among students," among other problematic aspects. Expert with an
American education Rubina Saigol stated, "I have been saying for the
longest time that, in reality, our state system is the largest Madrassah, we
keep blaming madrassahs for everything and, of course, they are doing a lot of
things I would disagree with. However, the state's ideology of hatred and
aggressive, negative nationalism is reaching audiences that madrassahs cannot.
Verghese, alluding to the National Council of Educational Research
and Training's (NCERT) 2004 review of textbooks in India, argued that the
erosion of plural and democratic values in Indian textbooks and the distortion
of history in Pakistan imply the need for collaboration between historians in
Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan to produce a composite history of the
subcontinent as a common South Asian reader. Scholars from throughout the world
agree on the need for educational reform in response to globalisation and
market forces, but they stress that any such efforts must take into account
local communities' unique needs and priorities.
Q.3 How will
you evaluate and rate religious textbooks at secondary level? Develop criteria
for textbook evaluation.
Even in a public school setting, discussions of religion are
permitted. The goal of educational programmes labelled as "teaching about
religion" is to inform pupils about the impact religion has had on the
cultural, literary, and social history of the United States and other
countries. These initiatives need to teach participants to accept and
appreciate the differences that make up modern society. All talk about religion
here must be treated as a neutral, objective, balanced, and factual discussion.
Religious freedom is an essential tenet of American freedom and democracy, and
it should be emphasised in these types of activities.
Public schools are not the place for "teaching religion,"
which amounts to religious indoctrination or practise. No religious or
doctrinal instruction may be included in a government-funded education
programme. It also can not have any kind of religiously motivating or
discouraging impact. A teacher is not allowed to advocate for or make fun of
students' religious or nonreligious beliefs or practises. A teacher should not
try to influence their pupils' thinking or insert their own opinions into the
classroom. Teachers should be very careful to avoid interfering with their
students' religious habits and beliefs. No one has the right to force students
to adopt a particular set of religious beliefs or observances. It is unlawful
to provide religious instruction under the guise of secular education.
Finally, there is a significant distinction between teaching about
religion and teaching religion itself. Teaching about religion in public
schools is protected by the First Amendment, but it is not lawful for schools
or their workers to celebrate religious festivals, advocate for or engage in
religious practise. This is a free speech issue as well as a religious liberty
issue, and school officials and parents must exercise extreme caution to avoid
crossing the line between "the laudable educational goal of promoting a
student's knowledge of and appreciation for this nation's cultural and religious
diversity, and the impermissible endorsement of religion forbidden by the
Establishment Clause." If a student submits a religiously oriented project
in response to a school assignment (like a book report), the school cannot
reject the product because of its religious content (students have a right to
free expression). A issue arises, however, if a bystander seeing the
presentation of the assignment (particularly creative, public presentations of
the assignment such as artwork, plays, and reports) can get the impression that
the school supports the initiative. So, a teacher cannot turn down a book
report because of its religious content, but they may reject a piece of art or
a play that will be presented in the school or performed in front of the public.
In fact, teachers have a lot of leeway to censor student speech so that
"participants learn whatever lessons the activity is designed to teach,
that readers or listeners are not exposed to material that may be inappropriate
for their level of maturity," and so that "the views of the
individual speaker are not erroneously attributed to the school."
The constitution of the nation calls for elementary school to be
provided free of charge and be mandatory for all students. As a consequence of
uneven development, the 'inverted pyramid' structure of the education system
has emerged, with higher education disproportionately weighted at the top and
basic education at the bottom. Lackluster student enrollment and low retention
rates contribute to a dismal literacy rate of 47%. Disparities in educational
outcomes, opportunities, and involvement by socioeconomic level (rich vs poor),
geography (rural versus urban), and gender further worsen an already dismal
situation (male versus female). Universal primary education is unlikely to be
achieved in the near future due to low government funding for education (about
3% of the GNP) and a rising birth rate. There is a wide range in quality among
universities. The divide between public and private schools is plain to see.
There is a broad range of causes for societal progress, and religious practises
and beliefs are among them. Only religious activity as a contributor to
societal progress is examined in this research. Underdevelopment and
non-development of society, however, would also be discussed in light of the
current situation in Pakistani society. Theorists in the area of development
studies and research mostly recognise the relevance of religious practises and
attitudes. European and Japanese theories of social development, which are
based on their respective countries' histories, also account for religious
beliefs and practises as a driving force behind progress and transformation.
Pakistan's social climate, religious influence, religious-behavioral change,
deterioration of social institutions, exploitation in the name of religion,
religio-political behaviour, religious-behavior of the ruling elite, social
division, sectarianism, militancy, and terrorism have all been dissected.
Aspects of religious conduct that are irrational, conservative, and dogmatic
have been explored. At the paper's conclusion, the ways in which religious
practises aid and advance societal progress are examined. Since Islam
establishes norms for not just the individual's private life but also the
public, political, and economic realms, a follower's actions in all of these
areas must be analysed in the context of religion. Thus, to comprehend the
connection between religious conduct and social progress, we must investigate
not only the religious but also the personal, social, political, and economic
dimensions of people's actions. Social behaviour may be described as a
“activity that takes place in a social environment and arises from the
interaction between and among individuals.” Antisocial activity is one that
“violates the rights of others; frequently coupled with antisocial personality.
Religion is one of the most, if not the most, essential features of Pakistani
society. The number of persons willing to openly identify as secular is small.
Seculars, fearing the anger of society and the assaults of extremists, may
sometimes pretend to be religious as well. Religion is taught to children in
Pakistan from the moment they are born. In the laps of their moms, youngsters
listen to parents and other family members recite the Quran. From elementary
school through high school, Islamic Studies is required of all students. Most
youngsters get regular instruction from religious instructors visiting their
households, or attend courses at mosques and madrassas, on how to recite the
Quran and read other Arabic literature. Nearly every mosque in the nation has a
public address system. The loudspeaker is used for the A'azan (call to prayer),
sermons and prayers on Fridays, and other religious events. Clerics and
students at madrassa created in mosques utilise loudspeakers anytime they wish
to read Quranic passages, or sing praise of God and Prophet Muhammad or to make
a speech to transmit or remind people of the religious rules. In ordinary
social contact, people are ready to instruct others on how to follow the
religion and comply to the injunctions decreed by God, His prophets and
religious authorities and leaders. Against this background, one might picture
the level of effect religion has on people’s lives and actions. Data from the
following tables, based on survey responses, demonstrates the breadth and
accessibility of religious instruction in Pakistani culture.
Q.4 Describe
exemplary lesson for biology textbooks. Also discuss the essential elements of
a lesson plan for teaching biology textbook.
A biology
textbook is a compendium of information compiled for the purpose of academic
study. The following educational qualities define an excellent biology
textbook:
Clearly defined
boundaries; the focus should be on providing a thorough grounding in the
subject matter, with a healthy dose of both theory and practise for each area.
To help students understand complex ideas, instructors often provide worked
examples or problems for them to solve. Internal coherence: following the
introductory chapters, the learner should not encounter any major changes in
format or presentation. Users of the work will quickly get used to its
structure, pacing, and the sequence in which figures, illustrations, examples,
and exercises are presented.
Usefulness for
later reference: after a thorough study, the biology textbook should separate
out, in neatly arranged appendices and tables, information that may be used for
later application of what was learned. Logic in its layout: a biology textbook
is more than a compendium of facts and figures; it also serves as a roadmap for
the student to follow in reviewing the content in a systematic fashion that
will ultimately lead to better retention and understanding.
Organized into
key parts, chapters, sections, and subsections, the material is presented in a
style that is easy to follow. Because of this, the book is structured around
the juncture of two needs. The first is the need of meeting subject-matter
standards. As a rule, this need is met adequately in biology textbooks since
they are written by or draw heavily on the work of specialists in the field.
The second criterion is limited only by the learner's imagination. Humans have
the capacity to think, yet experts often disregard their students' cognitive
requirements and limitations. Some guidelines for organising and presenting
ideas, concepts, and information might be outlined to help students make the
most of their skills. These regulations ought to cover:
The General
Principle of All Frameworks Keep the format uniform. Learners may use the
framework as a mental road map to help them go around the topic area. It is
helpful if the framework is evident right away. Rule of Symbolic Naming:
Develop and use a standardised naming scheme. Make sure you are using
appropriate jargon for your field of study. These names are essential for
retrieval of information stored in our memories. Limiting It to Reasonable
Sizes Lessen the volume of new material you drop on them all at once. The number
of novel components should be capped at about six. Our capacity to learn new
things is, for the most part, rather restricted. This figure grows when our
expertise in a certain field grows.
Power in Rank
Order Understanding expands upon prior information. Only make references to
prior content when presenting new stuff that builds upon that prior material.
Before being presented to a new subject, the learner has to have a firm grasp
of the requisite background material. When introducing novel ideas, be sure to
explain how they build upon previously established knowledge. The Law of
Imitation. Just to be sure, let us go over some key points again. Some aspects,
such as frameworks and significant hierarchies, may be repeated as many as five
or six times, while others, such as those used less often, may be repeated just
once or twice. There is a formula for transferring knowledge from working
memory to long-term storage.
Most nations
have a government organisation that reviews biology textbooks after they have
been created by specialists with the help of publishers. In Pakistan,
provincial or regional Biology textbook Boards and private publishers are
responsible for creating and updating biology textbooks for use in the
country's public schools. These boards and private publishers do their best to
provide biology textbooks that adhere to the standards set out by the Ministry
of Education's Curriculum Wing. The Curriculum Wing reviews biology textbooks
to guarantee that they follow the curriculum specifications given to the boards
and publishers. Rubrics are widely used as a tool to improve the quality and
consistency of evaluations. Those doing the evaluation, as well as the
textbook's publishers and authors, will benefit from a rubric that is as
explicit as possible in its indicators of the textbook's quality. The
criteria's accompanying descriptions should clearly characterise the quality of
work at each level on the rubric, with references to particular needs of a
great biology textbook. As the rules are established, it would be helpful to
discuss the criteria that were used to appraise the biology textbook. It is
recommended that publishers and writers of biology textbooks use both rubrics
and models as they strive to polish the final product. After the biology
textbook is finished, they may be utilised not just for evaluation but also to
get the publisher/authors thinking critically about the project. As part of its
content examination, the Biology textbook Policy also paid close attention to
the following four factors: • Coverage of Learning Competencies Content
accuracy (i.e., correctness in terms of concepts, facts, pedagogy, grammar,
etc.); Presentation, language, and visuals that are appropriate for the
intended audience, the context, and the culture; Grammar is accurate, and the
language is straightforward for the intended audience. To guarantee the high
quality of biology textbooks in the Philippines, the Department of Education
(DepED) has created a handbook of biology textbook style and standards. The following
is a breakdown of the manual's structure: Cover requirements (usage of logos,
font, font size, general layout, qualifiers), printing specifications (font
types and size, acceptable per grade level), and general and technical
standards (size, paper quality, cover stock, preferred biding) Page 6 (DepED,
Policy on Biology Textbooks, 2004) The major criteria for this assessment are
whether or not the biology books are grounded in empirical research and whether
or not they correspond to the prescribed curriculum outlined in the Philippine
Elementary Learning Competencies (PELC) and the Philippine Secondary School
Learning Competencies (PSSLC).
Q.5 Highlight
the role of "science myths" in misunderstanding the science textbooks
and also highlight some of the myths/errors given in the biology textbook with
reference (book, grade level, unit/page no.
Science is
difficult to grasp because of its complexity and abstractness. Still, intricacy
is not the only reason Science might be difficult to grasp. The pervasive
propagation of false "Science Myths" in the media, in the homes of
ordinary people, and in the classrooms of basic schools has made even the
simplest explanations of scientific concepts a daunting task.
Because
students have to unlearn the false material presented by these "science
myths" or "urban tales of science," this creates a substantial
obstacle to their learning. Unlearning is an uncommon phenomenon,
unfortunately. After all, many educators endorse the beliefs and publish textbooks
that include them. Most people would never guess they were there. Students will
not put the blame on their textbooks if they struggle with a scientific idea.
Instead of taking responsibility, they will place the blame on the new idea
itself for being too difficult or abstract. Teachers will not realise there are
mistakes in the books because they will assume that all the books are correct
since they all explain the same idea in the same manner.
The purpose of
a science education is to instil in students not just an appreciation for and
confidence in the scientific process, but also the critical thinking and
analytical abilities that are essential to successfully applying that
technique. Unfortunately, there are several misconceptions that undermine these
aspirations. Many of these misconceptions have their roots in science
classrooms, where they are repeatedly presented because instructors are too
lazy to check them up. They endure even when they have been disproved before.
You may still be holding on to these seven misconceptions from your high school
biology lesson.
Humans sit atop the food chain
The herbivores among us are sometimes heard saying, "I did not
get to the top of the food chain to eat a salad." Although we may grasp
their meaning, the underlying idea is flawed. Because the food chain is an
overly simplified analogy. It resembles a food web, a more realistic
representation of the way energy is transferred among creatures in an
ecosystem.
Energy is transmitted from lower to higher in food chains, which
make up the building blocks of food webs. However, the complexity of the food
chain arises from the fact that many species serve as both predators and prey.
Many species are both predators and prey to a wide variety of other organisms.
The concept of the food chain typically overlooks the producers at the bottom.
Therefore, a food web is a significantly more accurate model, notwithstanding
its imperfections.
Most individuals confuse breathing with respiration. Sadly, it is
far from being the case. While we are well-versed in the concept of breathing,
the process of respiration is less familiar. Respiration occurs when muscles
release glucose during exercise. Our cells run on glucose. To generate power,
of course! It is possible that this misunderstanding stems from the fact that
research on the respiratory system often centres around the process of
breathing. The problem here is that everyone is confused.
Cats and dogs are colorblind
This misconception may persist because of the striking differences
between human and non-human visual systems. Unexpectedly, new studies show that
canines and felines alike can distinguish between the hues of green and blue.
But they are not exactly like us. Because dogs have fewer cone cells, they see
colours about a seventh as vividly as people do.
The number of rod cells in their eyes is, however, greater than
that of humans. Light is detected by these particular cells. This implies
canines have enhanced night vision compared to humans. When seen through the
eyes of a cat, colours take on a whole new appearance. Their perception of the
colour purple may be closer to that of blue, while the colours red and pink may
seem to them as varying tones of green.
This is from Dr. Robert Lustig's best-selling book, Fat Chance. It
was first published in 2009 and suggested that sugar, like cocaine, heroin, and
alcohol, might boost the brain's reward system. However, although sugar may
stimulate dopamine release, this hypothesis has never been verified by
neuroimaging research. There is presently no way to confirm or disprove this
claim, yet it may be shown to be correct in the near future.